Tuesday, August 6, 2019
Pros and Cons of Affirmative Action Essay Example for Free
Pros and Cons of Affirmative Action Essay Affirmative action is a policy in which the previously disadvantaged due to discrimination receive priority. It came to existence as a remedy toward discrimination and then became a problem all by itself according to some theorists, who are opponents to it. Supporters believe affirmative action should be adopted to provide equal employment opportunity, but facts show that it does not. Affirmative action is a very controversial issue, which has been debated for more than thirty years.  Unlike discrimination, there are not so many laws against affirmative action, but opponents are indeed working on banning it wherever it is possible for them to do so. TABLE OF CONTENTS Brief Overview of Affirmative Action Origin of Affirmative Action Views of Affirmative Action People who benefit from Affirmative Action Employment and Affirmative Action Affirmative Action and Equal Employment Opportunity Legal Issues of Affirmative Action How to Stop Affirmative Action from Being Taken Pros and Cons of Affirmative Action Brief Overview of Affirmative Action     Affirmative Action is usually defined as an active effort to improve employment or educational opportunities for members of minority groups and women or one to promote the rights or progress of other disadvantaged people. (Websters Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged. Merriam-Webster, 2002)     In practice, affirmative action is taken by giving women and people from a minority group priority. For instance, a company has an opening for a bookkeeper. On determining who should be hired, the company gives women and people from a minority group priority. This could also happen with promotion: only women and people from a minority group are likely to be promoted, and with education: women and people from a minority group have better chances of obtaining grants and scholarships that would enable them to attend college.     Another way of illustrating how affirmative action is taken would be with a classroom in which some students receive a great deal of unfair punishments. One day it is brought to the teacher’s attention that she will be dismissed unless unfair practices are stopped. In an attempt to correct the past unacceptable behavior, the teacher starts treating those students with some kind of preference. In the beginning this will be certainly appropriate, as those students will need to feel that they are not ill-treated anymore. Origin of Affirmative Action     Affirmative action is believed to have come about as a remedy to the awful discrimination that regrettably used to take place. As a matter of  fact, according to T.H. Anderson, (2004) in 1940 discrimination was tradition and in some states it was even law. Sad though it might now sound to us, the most educated and refined African-American did not have the rights the most illiterate and indecent white individual did (p. 2). Therefore, when discrimination became illegal in the United States, affirmative action started to take place.     By the mid-1970’s minorities and women were winning significant victories, which could be seen on construction sites, exemplified by the Metro in Washington D.C. Mayor Walter E. Washington took a dramatic step, mandating a strong affirmative action program in which all private companies doing business or having contracts with city hall would have to submit plans with goals to advanced minorities and women. (J.H. Anderson, 2004, p. 142)     A valid affirmative action plan is one means of trying to undo the effects of past illegal discrimination. Under such a plan, an employer makes employment decisions based on race or sex factor that ordinarily can’t be considered, in order to restore equal opportunity employment for groups that have faced discrimination. When a court finds that a business has discriminated and there are no other effective means to remedy the discrimination, the court may require the business to take affirmative action. For example, a court may order a company to hire one African-American employee for every two white ones hired until the company’s workforce resembles the racial mix of the community.  (F.S. Steinhold, 2007, p. 156)     A business may also have to set up an affirmative action plan as part of voluntary settling a court case or the proceeding of E.E.O.C. (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission). Any voluntary program must meet the E.E.O.C.’s Guidelines on Affirmative Action Plans. (F.S. Steinhold, 2007, p. 156) Views of Affirmative Action     Because it appears that originally valid plans of affirmative action became in a way corrupted or abused, there have been some opponents to it. Affirmative action is a subject that has been debated and analyzed by philosophers, legal scholars, social scientists, politicians, journalists, editorial writers, and common citizens for three decades.     Basically, the debate has two sides: the Right and the Left. The Right, which is totally against it, states that Affirmative action only causes people to obtain what they desire not because they deserve it, but because they belong to a group that was discriminated in the past. According to this site, affirmative action is unmeritocratic, leads to reverse-discrimination, and is an un-American guarantee of equal results instead of equal opportunity. The Left, which supports it, states that affirmative action is a compensation for past injustices and a guarantee of a fair share of the economic pie. (J.D. Skrentny, 1996, p. 1 2)     To reconcile the two views, it could perhaps be said that an affirmative action plan might be proper in the beginning of a non-discriminatory period of time; women and people from minority groups should feel that they are not discriminated anymore. On the other hand, there is no reason for this period of time to last forever. For instance, in the United States discrimination became illegal a very long time ago, so previously discriminated people should not be given any kind of priority because of what it used to happen in the distant past.     When it became vital to take the affirmative action in the turbulent period of 1964 to 1971, a careful consideration of the cultural and historical circumstances became absolutely necessary in its debate and an explanation for why it happened was needed as well. (Clayton Crosby, 1992, p. 2) Nowadays, more than thirty years after that period, affirmative action would simply be against logic and no explanation could possibly be given as a result.    Affirmative Action is believed to be one of the most controversial policies in the United States. â€Å"The issues are complex, they stir strong feelings, and in the media everyone seems to have an opinion on the topic (Clayton Crosby, 1992, p. 1). This implies that a great deal of understanding is needed.     The complexity of affirmative action as a topic is illustrated by the controversy of whether the version of the Civil Rights Act of 1991 required or prohibited quotas – George Bush’s belief versus his proponents -, the appointment of Clarence Thomas – an affirmative action beneficiary who surprisingly opposed it -, and the apparent shift in the Supreme Court. (S.D. Clayton F.J. VanDeVeer, 2000, p. 4)     Opponents of affirmative action are believed to come from a variety of quarters: Supreme Court Justice Thomas – an African-American who opposes it – Thomas Sowell, Shelby Steele, and Glenn Lowry – African-American critics who gained national attention speaking about the policy -, and Stephen Carter – William Nelson Cromwell Professor of Law at Yale University. Their reactions to affirmative action seem very intriguing. (S.D. Clayton F.J. VanDeVeer, 2000, p. 4)      Why people who benefit from affirmative action oppose to it deserves the amazement of whoever learns of the fact. It could perhaps be interpreted that they want to be equal – neither better nor worse.  The fact that they are now granted more rights because they were once deprived of the ones they should have in the first place is likely to make them feel inferior. In other words, their equality should be put in force and they should only obtain what they rightly deserve regardless of their background.          Affirmative action became a major issue in state courts in California and in Pennsylvania, where it was indeed claimed that its almost inevitable effect was reverse discrimination. People who benefit from Affirmative Action     In general, belonging to a minority group is due to an inborn or inherited matter, like women, African Americans, and people from different origins. On the other hand, there are some groups of people who willfully joined a minority group. For instance, many people learned one religion at home and later converted to a different one. Homosexuality and bi-sexuality is debatable: some theorists believe uncommon sexual orientations are in the genes, whereas some other ones believe they are a matter of option. Regardless of which theorists are right, homosexual and bi-sexual people were victims of discrimination in the past and later became beneficiaries of affirmative action.      As we all know, African Americans were virtually the worst victims of discrimination. Without any right whatsoever, people were taken from Africa and brought to America to be sold as slaves. The awful slavery was abolished a few hundred years later, but African Americans were still unable to obtain what the average person usually could. In the middle of the twentieth century, discrimination against African Americans became illegal and the law started to call for a total equality, and affirmative action was taken as a remedy. Employment and Affirmative Action          Before focusing on the fact of whether or not affirmative action should be adopted to provide equal employment opportunity, we need to understand thoroughly the basic concepts or employment.     P. K. Edwards (2003) states in his book Industrial Relations: Theory and Practice that the employment relations has two parts: market relations and managerial relations. The former is more obvious because it covers price of labor, which embraces not only the basic wage but also hours of work, holidays and pension rights. In this respect, labor is like any other commodity, with a price which represents the total cost of enjoying its use. Yet labor differs from all other commodities in that it is enjoyed in use and is embodied in people. A machine in a factory is also enjoyed in use and for what it can produce. Yet how it is used is solely up to the owner. The ‘owner’ of labor, the employer has to persuade the worker, that is, the person in whom the labor in embodied, to work. (p. 9)     Most companies have employees nowadays, given that it simply becomes impossible for the owner to do everything all by him- or herself. On hiring a new employee, companies have their own criteria. We see quite often that the same employee who does not qualify for one company does for another one. Employees are chosen based on the companies’ budget and needs. In general, a large, profitable business is likely to choose a better skilled worker than a small business that operates at low budget.     Small businesses, which are usually constrained by the pressure of not exceeding their low budget, might also be selective in their own way. A very unskilled person, however economical he or she might be, is likely to be of no significant assistance to the company. As a result, the company might end up loosing money because of him or her.     When a person is to be hired by a company, it is imperative that it be done under the equal employment opportunity basis. The best candidate should be the one taking over the position. Failure to do so would be an unfair practice that might eventually lead to some significant problems.  F.J. Crosby and C. VanDeVeer (2000) wrote in their book Sex, Race and Merit: Often, when a problem has been identified, hiring or promotion goals are instituted. In classical affirmative action programs (where the employer monitors to make sure that qualified people are hired and promoted) the goals are derived from close study of the organization and are based on realistic appraisals of the labor market. (p. 4) From the above, we see that classical affirmative action is a way in which equal opportunity employment is achieved, and supporters of affirmative action indeed focus on the remedy of unfair acts of discrimination performed in the past. Everybody believes that the employer is to monitor to make sure that qualified people are hired and promoted.     In fact, the goal of affirmative action when it came to existence was equal employment opportunity. Nonetheless, its practice later on became corrupted and its present goal is to give priority to people who belong to a minority group that was discriminated in the past. Many opponents of affirmative action would indeed oppose to discrimination and would agree to a policy in which only qualified people are hired and competent employees are promoted.          J.M. Bernbach (1998), who so much disapproves of discrimination wrote: In 1996, affirmative action (the practice, fostered by federal government, of providing preferential treatment and / or opportunities to specified groups of persons in hiring or promotion, etc., as a means of correcting the present effects of past discrimination) received a good deal of negative attention. (p.3) On certain occasions, affirmative action seems necessary or appropriate to remedy past injustices, but there is no reason to believe that everybody, including people who were always against discrimination, must follow suit. Affirmative Action and Equal Employment Opportunity     As the name implies, equal employment opportunity is the right of every single person to be employed regardless of his or her background, i.e. race, color, national origin, religion, gender, age, disability, or reprisal. In the United States there is an organization called Equal Employment Opportunity Commission that focuses on how this right is actually granted to every individual. Burstein in his book Discrimination, Jobs, and Politics (1998) states: In order to form a satisfactory picture of what public wanted on EEO, members of the congress would, ideally, want to know about three aspects of constituents attitudes: first, whether their constituents favored EEO, second, whether they wanted the government to do anything about it; and third, whether they felt strongly about the issue. (p. 42)     We see that the government is very much concerned about fair hiring and promotion practices. It is indeed a fact that everybody wants equal employment opportunities; nobody favors priority on the basis of discrimination or affirmative action. People want the government to ascertain the equal employment opportunities are in effect and they do feel strongly about the issue. The answer of most people is that the right person should take over the position he or she rightly deserves     Antidiscrimination programs are believed to be inefficient and costly. The reason might be the stagnant economy that has apparently not permitted to continue with them. Government pressures to employ or promote women and minorities may force firms to misallocate labor and thus suffer production losses. Keeping with the current concern over productive efficiency can rather be an antidiscrimination effort. (P. Burestein, Equal Employment Opportunity, 1994, p. 85)     Better production in a company as a whole could rather achieve equality. For instance, a company has been in business for many years and, on analyzing their activities, they come to see that their production was better when they had people with more skills in the engineering department. As a result they decide to hire a high-skilled engineer. When doing so, they carefully evaluate every candidate regardless of their background until they end up hiring the most suitable one. One year later, the company analyzes their activities and see some remarkable improvements.     One might want to ask how it is possible for someone who is not so skillful to become skillful in the future. The answer would be quite simple: more education or training, and, as we all know, education is very easy nowadays. There are many ways online that would enable one to obtain it, and there are many regular schools that could help.     Some people take their not being hired as a lesson to get more education or training. Inevitably, when the person being hired is from a majority group, some people accuse the company of being discriminatory, and, when someone from a minority group is hired, the company might also be accused of having taken affirmative action. When something alike happens, the EEOC (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission) needs to be contacted, and they need to investigate the situation.      The beginning of antidiscrimination and or against affirmative action is perhaps freedom. One might question what freedom has to do with either discrimination or affirmative action, and the answer might be the actual explanation of what freedom means. Freedom is the right to share fully and equally in American society – to vote, to hold a job, to enter a public place, to go to school. It is right to be treated in every part of national life as a person equal in dignity and promise to all others. (Curry, G.E. West, C. , 1996, p. 17)      In a society in which freedom is in existence, the equal opportunity employment practice is easier to put in practice. Some people might use this freedom in an abusive form, ending up in discrimination or affirmative action. That is why it is necessary that a commission EEOC (Equal Employment Opportunity) exist. The goal of this organization is to establish rules and regulations and, whenever a case of discrimination or affirmative action is reported, this organization needs to study it thoroughly and then determine how it could be corrected. In some occasions, it is even necessary to take legal action. Legal Issues of Affirmative Action     Unlike discrimination, which is so clearly against the law and there is a great deal of coverage both constitutionally and statutorily, it has not become possible to have affirmative action at the same level. No one constitutional or statutory provision covers all the many different varieties of affirmative action. (C. Wolf-Devine, 1997, p. 182) As a result, it becomes very intricate for both judges and attorneys to deal with a case of affirmative action.     If a man that does not belong to a minority group is not hired solely because that company is currently taken affirmative action when hiring, he would first report the incidence to Equal Opportunity Employment Commission. If the E.O.E.C. determines that the individual has brought prima facie evidence, they might decide to take legal action against that company. The judge and the attorney are likely to regard the whole case as a reverse-discrimination and by doing so, the same sources of law that are used in a discriminating case can be used for this particular one. After all, the individual that was hired was only successful to obtain this job because he or she belongs to a minority group, not because he was the best qualified for it. If the case had been just the opposite – the individual that was hired did not belong to a minority group, whereas the one that was not hired did it would have been a regular discrimination case, which would have had a great deal of coverage in the American legal system.      The very same situation would have been with someone who has been working at a company for a very long time and, due to his valuable qualifications, would deserve promotion. Besides the fact that promotion is not given to him, two other co-workers a woman and an African American – do become promoted in an attempt to take affirmative action. Given that promotion is also controlled to E.E.O.C., the individual contacts them immediately and they determine that the matter is to be brought in front of a judge. This case would also be treated as a discriminating case, and it indeed is a case of reverse discrimination.      According to Herman Belz, in his book Equality Transformed (1991): Affirmative action lacks consistency and coherence insofar as the Supreme Court applied two antithetical theories of employment discrimination, upheld quotas in hiring and promotion while prohibiting them in layoffs, and used some form of strict scrutinity review to analyze discrimination under the Constitution while forsaking such reviews under Title VII – and only then asking whether a race conscious measure promoted the goal of minority employment. (p. 225 226) The above shows up to what point affirmative action is to be treated like discrimination when it comes to legal matter. However, the fact that when affirmative action is taken does not at all mean that there has in fact been discrimination put judges and attorneys in a cumbersome situation.     While discrimination has the same principles, is clear and can be carefully considered, affirmative action – in general regarded as the opposite of discrimination – is never clear enough to be handled by a judge and attorneys. As we know, affirmative action is sometimes taken as a remedy, whereas discrimination comes as a matter of opinion. For instance, a company that never hires African American is sued for discrimination. The basis of this type of discrimination will always be the same; the accused will try to deny the fact. Someone that is sued for taking affirmative action will rather try to justify his attitude. How to Stop Affirmative Action from Being Taken      Affirmative action is definitely not an effective diversity or opportunity policy; it is merely reverse discrimination. Given that a person obtains what he or she wishes because he or she belongs to a minority group – not because he or she deserves it, the policy is very unfair indeed. A fair policy would be one in which the best-skilled individual takes over a position at a company or someone who qualifies for a grant or scholarship to attend college obtains it.      On some occasions, there might be a court order for a company to take affirmative action. When this happens, it is usually in an attempt to settle a lawsuit that was placed because discriminatory policies were adopted by that particular company.     When affirmative action is taken on a voluntary basis without any good reason whatsoever, it becomes a legal transgression that is just as awful as discrimination. Obviously, a court cannot order a company taking affirmative action to be discriminatory from now on, as this would only be an awful crime.     The solution toward the problem of taking affirmative action is quite simple: the company should make their hiring and promotion decision based on the workers skills and qualifications, not based on the fact that that particular individual belongs to a minority group.      The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission should come up with some guidelines to prevent companies from taking affirmative action altogether. Those guidelines should be brought to the attention of the U.S. Senate in order for them to become laws. As we know, when a company is accused of taking affirmative action, judges and attorneys find it difficult to handle the case, because there are not enough laws against it.     Copying the laws of discrimination would not be an option, because a court would never order a company to discriminate, whereas it might order a company to take affirmative action as a remedy for past discriminatory activities. New laws need to be put in force, as laws against affirmative action were in some occasions questioning.     It is very painful to pinpoint that extreme affirmative action is widespread in the United States, and there does not seem to be any solution at first sight.  Under the assumption that affirmative is taken as a remedy toward discrimination, the number of individual that claim to suffer from affirmative actions exceeds the number of the ones who suffered from discrimination in the past and now benefit from the policy.     Empirically the official case for affirmative action is weak and conceptually it is loose. Believing that the policy has been good for America and that it has been an instantaneous move to color-blindness would be ill-advised.     Equal opportunity is supported by everybody, but it would be inappropriate to the extreme to believe that the way to achieve it is phasing out affirmative action. Michigan, a state in which there are many opponents, is one of the ones that have intended to ban affirmative action altogether, and such a measure is believed to be one of the harshest attacks on affirmative action to come to a vote anywhere in the country. This movement has been called Michigan Civil Rights Initiative and it deserves to be called the Michigan Anti-Affirmative Action Initiative. It was also intended to add language to the Michigan state constitution to disallow preferential treatment based on gender, or race. Other states following suit are California, Washington State, and Florida.      The passage of the Michigan Civil Rights Initiative would specifically ban public institutions from using affirmative action programs that give preferential treatment to people from minority groups and prohibit public institutions from discriminating against groups or individuals that do not belong to those groups.     The Michigan Civil Rights Initiative is indeed very appropriate and the whole country, as well as the whole world, should follow in their footsteps. Anderson, T.H. (2004). Pursuit of Fairness: A History of Affirmative Action. Oxford University Press, (p.2, 3 142) Belz, H. (1991) Equality Transformed, Transaction Publishers (p225 p226) Bernbach, J.M. (1998). Job Discrimination II, Voire Dire Press (p. 3 4) Burestein, P. (1994). Equal Employment Opportunity, Aldine Transaction (p. 85) Burestein, P. (1998). Discrimination, Jobs, and Politics. University of Chicago Press (p. 42) Clayton, S.D., Crosby, F.J. (1992). Justice, Gender, and Affirmative Action. University of Michigan Press (p. 1 2) Clayton, S.D., by F.J. , VanDeVeer, C. (2000). Sex, Race, and Merit. University of Michigan Press (p. 4) Curry, G.E. West, C. (1996). The Affirmative Action Debate, Basic Books (p. 17) Edwards, P.K. (2000). Industrial Relations: Theory and Practice. Blackwell Publishing (p. 9) Skrentny, J.D. (1996). The Ironies of Affirmative Action: Politics, Culture, and Justice in America. University of Chicago Press (p. 1 2) Steinhold, F.S. (2007) The Employee’s Legal Handbook, Nolo, (p. 156) Wolf-Devine, C. (1997) Diversity and Community in the Academy, Rowman Littlefield, (p. 182) Websters Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged. Merriam-Webster, 2002
Monday, August 5, 2019
Instructional Design | Definitions and Principles
Instructional Design | Definitions and Principles Section 1 – My Definition of Instructional Design According to the Internet Wikipedia, â€Å"Instructional Design, also called Instructional Systems Design is the practice of maximizing the effectiveness, efficiency and appeal of instruction and other learning experiences.†The course of action to be undertaken is made up in a broad sense of deciding the state in which the learner is in as we see it, stating the end purpose of the teaching, and cause the existence of some light at the end of the tunnel so as to make the transition smooth. Andragogical and pedagogical theories of learning inform the instructional design process which may transpire in three settings; teacher-led, community-based and student-only. Instructional design may be measured scientifically, observable directly or hidden completely and assumed. As much as there may be so many models of Instruction design, most of them are based on the ADDIE model in which the different phases are analyzed; design phase, development phase, implementation phase and evaluation phase. Training is everything. The peach was once a biter almond; cauliflower is nothing but cabbage with a college education (Mayer et al, 1996). In addition, Nadler (1984) postulates that training is defined as learning that is provided in order to improve performance on the present job. â€Å"Instructional Design is the systematic process of translating general principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials and learning†(Alessi Trollip, 1991). Most authors have looked at Instructional Design as a Discipline, a Science, and a Process and also as a Reality. â€Å"Instructional Design is the systematic development of instructional specifications using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the entire process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet those needs. It includes development of instructional materials and activities; and tryout and evaluation of all instruction and learner activities†(Gentry, 1994). Instruction Design can also be explained as a Discipline. â€Å"Instructional Design is that branch of knowledge concerned with research and theory about instructional strategies and the process for developing and implementing those strategies†(Anglin, 1991). It can also be explained as reality. â€Å"Instructional Design can start at any point in the design process. Often a glimmer of an idea is developed to give the core of an instruction situation. By the time the entire process is done the designer looks back and her or him checks to see that all parts of the â€Å"science†have been taken into account. Then the entire process is written up as if it occurred in a systematic fashion†(Venezky, R. Osin, L., 1991). Instructional design is the systematic development of instruction by using learning and instructional research and theories, as well as established best practices, to ensure the quality of classroom/course materials (Learner, 1986). The entire process of analysis of what a group of learners needs, objective identification and development of learning objects constitutes instructional design. Instructional design cannot come to a standstill at some point then pick up again. It is an ongoing process. When instruction comes to a completion, there is evaluation and after this the instruction design starts all over again. From the many authors, I can say instruction design is a process in which instruction is followed up to its completion and also the means and ways the same could be achieved. In education, instruction is part and parcel of the system. It is therefore important that means to follow instructions by students is looked into. Research and observations has it that most students do not fail because there is anything wrong with them but they fail because everything is right with them but cannot follow instructions! Section2 – The principles of Instructional Design Before looking at the key principles of Instructional design, we need to list the most important of the principles and elements of the instruction design. They include; objectives, evaluation, the learner and methods. We are going to look at the most important elements of the four principles of instruction design and see how they fit in the instruction design models that exist. Under the elements of the instruction, for one to develop a good instruction design then we need to identify the people the instruction is being developed for. This gives us a starting point. It becomes clear immediately when we have the target audience. In this way, we can profile the targeted audience and out of the profiling, we may get a rough idea of how to design the instruction. It is also important to come up with a list of things that the people for whom the instruction is being developed for should be able to accomplish after going through the instruction. This also adds some meat to the skeleton of the design of the instruction we have from the profiling we did above after identifying the people the instruction is being designed for. This is like starting from the end in order to design the instruction. Once we have an idea of what a learner should have achieved by the end of the instruction then we can come up with the best ways in which to achieve the same for the learner. Some of the things we need to think about are the teaching methods or learning methods that could be employed so as to have the objectives achieved in the best way possible (Mayer, 2001). Activities to be included in the design and resources to be used are also very important factors that we should also look into. The way to look at them is to have an established plan of how to use the resources and the activities in order to achieve the objectives of the instruction design. Another element that needs to be looked at is a way of knowing whether the learner has been able to do the things the learner should be able to do once the instruction is complete. This is some kind of the examination of the design of the instruction. One wise man once said that an unexamined life is a wasted life. Examination in whatever we do is very crucial and so it is also very important in the design of an instruction (Newby et al., 1996). It is the examination that reveals whether something is working or not. It is also good for us to put measures in place so as to determine whether the design of the instruction has made the learner learn something. Evaluation of the learning characteristics, objectives of the instruction and the methods of instruction needs to happen before taking on the actual instruction design. Learner characteristics are one of the factors to put into consideration before designing an instruction. It is very important to run a background check on the level of exposure the learner has on the topic, the grades of the learner and also how the learner has been performing academically in the past not necessary in the instruction topic but in general. The social characteristics o rather personal characteristics have to be looked at. The learners work experience, age, the relation of the content of the instruction to the leaners life and the attitude as well. It is also good to put non-conventional learners into consideration. These may include the learners who have disabilities, learners from different cultures and also primary language learners. The style of the learner is also put into consideration. This means looking at the conditions the learner has to be in when learning. Lastly, we all know that when one is motivated, the motivation quickly serves as an ingredient for success (Sweller, 1988). The motivation of a leaner is also a point to look at. Some of the pointers are the students grade, a persons credit, the self improvement of a person, the salary one earns and also the advancement of ones status. Section 3- Models of Instructional Design ADDIE model The ADDIE model is the most common of all models. The acronym ADDIE stands for five words which make up the five phases of the ADDIE model. The â€Å"A†stands for analyze. The analysis is of things like the characteristics of the learner, the tasks that the learner should learn. The â€Å"D†stands for design where the learning objectives are developed and also an approach that is instructional in nature is chosen in this phase. The second â€Å"D†stands for develop where the training or the instructional materials are brought to existence. The â€Å"I†stands for a big word and the word is the â€Å"I†stands for is implement. Implementation in a nutshell involves the distribution of the materials containing the instructions. Lastly, the â€Å"E†stands for evaluate. In the evaluation phase, checking of how the materials distributed in the implementation phase affected the learner takes place (Saettler, 1990). It is in this phase that we a re able to know whether the goals for designing the instruction were achieved. Most models of instruction design have been modified from the ADDIE model. Rapid Prototyping Rapid prototyping is a model that was adopted from the ADDIE model. It is considered a simpler version of the ADDIE model b y many instruction designers. The heart of Instruction design is the analysis phase. This phase comes first. It is the doorway to the other four phases of instruction design (Seels Glasgow, 1990). It is after the analysis stage that we are in a position to choose the instruction design model that is most suited for the design of the instruction. This is because it is only after understanding exactly what we are dealing with is one able to pick the right bus to take him or her to the right destination. Analysis should be done thoroughly. Most instruction designers do not do a thorough job when it comes to analysis. The result of this is pretty much obvious. This is synonymous to expecting a very strong house to be sustained by a very weak foundation (Smith Ragan, 1993). The analysis is the foundation of the house called instructional design. It is therefore encouraged that at the analysis stage, a lot of time and keenness should be put into the analysis so as to gather as much information as possible. The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model In the book entitled The Systematic Design of Instruction, which was published in 1978, Walter Dick and Lou Carey came up with The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model. In this model, the instruction is not viewed as a breakdown of parts isolated but as a system. Its main focus is on the interrelationship between content, instruction, context and learning. â€Å"Components such as the instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities, delivery system, and learning and performance environments interact with each other and work together to bring about desired student learning outcomes†(Clark et al, 2006). The components to this model include instructional goal identification, instructional analysis conduction, learners and contexts analyzing, writing of performance objectives, developing of assessment instruments, developing of instructional strategy, developing and selecting of instructional materials, designing and conducting formative evaluation of instruction, revi sion of instruction and lastly, designing and conducting of summative evaluation. In the Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model, the execution of components is done in an iterative, parallel manner and not in a linear manner as in the Rapid prototyping. Apart from the above mentioned models, there exists the Instructional Development Learning System (IDLS), the Smith/Ragan Model and the Morrison/Ross/Kemp Model. Section 4- Relationships Between the Principles and the Models In this section we are going to look at the way the models have applied the key principles of instruction design. As we had seen in section two, the key principles of instruction design include; objective, evaluation, the learner and methods. Our goal in this section is to see how the models of instruction design have taken the principles of instruction design and blended than in the models of instruction design. We had also seen that the ADDIE model was broken down into five phases and these were analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation phase. At the analysis, all the blind spots to the problem are removed and this is where the goals and objectives are established. It is at this stage that the identification of the skills the learner needs is identified and the learning environment determined. The analysis stage in the ADDIE model goes hand in hand with the principle of objectivity. This shows that the ADDIE instruction model has used one of the principles of objectivity as per the analysis above. At the design level, the objectives determines in the analysis level are learnt. At the design phase, the instruments to be used to asses are determined, the content of the exercises to be done are also determined. Planning of the lessons as well as the selection of media is done here. This is consistent with the principle of methods. Under the methods principle, all the items looked at are more or less similar to the ones put into consideration under the design phase in the ADDIE model. Under the evaluation phase in the ADDIE model, there exist two sides to the coin; summative and formative. Formative has been there in each and every phase in the ADDIE model. However, Summative evaluation is specific to an identified area of problem from the learners. Under the lists of principles used in the design of an instruction, there is the principle of evaluation. This goes to show that the ADDIE is consistent with the key principles of Instructional design. If we were to look at Rapid prototyping, we can say that it is also consistent with the principles of instructional design. We can say this because it is a simpler version of the ADDIE model meaning it is very similar to the ADDIE model and since the ADDIE is compliant with the principles of Instructional design, Rapid prototyping also is consistent with the key principles of instructional design. So far, we have looked at ADDIE model and also Rapid prototyping in relation to the key principles of instruction design. The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model is seen to have quite a number of components of which we are going to look at each and every component to see of it is consistent with the key principles of instruction design or not (Paas et al., 2004). This is the model that looks at instruction as a system and not a sum of isolated parts. The identification of a goal is consistent with the objectives principle. The conducting of the analysis of the instruction is rather on its own there. There seems to be no principle in tandem with the analysis of the instruction. The principle of objectivity is in line with the analysis of learners and contexts. Writing of performance objectives can be put under the objective principle. The developing of the instruments to be used in the assessment can fit quite well under the methods principle (Clark Mayer, 2002 Cooper Sweller, 1987). The development of the instructional strategy to be used when distributing the instructions can be out under methods. The evaluation of the instruction, revision of the instruction and the summative evaluation will all fall under the evaluation principle. We can safely say therefore that all the components of the Dick and Carey Systems Approach model all follow the principles of the key principles of the design of instruction. Most models adhere to the simple key principles of instruction design. Section 5-My Lesson Plan Subject Matter and Grade Level The subject matter I choose for my lesson plan is geometry for the 6th graders. The reason behind this choice is firstly because when I was in the 6th grade, geometry was not a smooth ride but when I moved to higher grades, I felt so stupid for not being able to understand the simple geometry the teacher always taught. I would tail the class in geometry and this was not a good feeling as it interfered with my ability to grasp other subjects confidently. I can easily identify with kids whom their teachers would clearly, loudly and publically say that they have given up on them. This is because they never get above a certain grade in some subjects. This is what my teacher used to say and I would feel so inadequate. I have narrowed down to geometry because most kids at this stage feel that geometry or anything mathematical such as college algebra is hard and is beyond their capabilities (Chandler Sweller, 1991). The truth is with the principles and models of instructional design, there is nothing that cannot be learnt! The lesson I want to design is the simple formula on how to get the circumference of a circle. This was also an area I used to be confused at. Firstly, the confusion came when choosing the figure to put as diameter and the figure to put as radius. There may be students who have no problem with this but my target is the students who have time and time again gotten this geometric question wrong. The Model The model I choose to work it is the Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model. I chose this model because I want to have a system approach to the instruction and not as a sum of little instruction bits and pieces. The goal of the instruction is to prompt the learner to give the circumference of a circle whether operating from the radius or the diameter. The instruction can either be wordy or delivered using the mathematical language. The Lesson The sixth graders analyzed cannot tell the difference between the radius and the diameter and this may be the reason as to why the question is failed so many times. The performance objectives are to see a bigger percentage of the sixth graders getting questions related to the circumference of a circle correct. In school, every single mark is important just the same way as in life, every small thing done to enhance your life counts. The assessment instrument to be used is a geometry test. The strategy in getting the objectives met is to make the learning process as interesting as possible. For example, instead of drawing boring shapes using chalk on the board, we use colorful shapes and abstract shapes so as to make learning less formal for the students to relate with the interesting shapes (Kemp et al., 1996). These will be the interesting instructing materials. The formative way of checking if the instruction did work is by looking at the marks to the geometry test. If the grades ar e higher than what they were then the instruction design process was a success. Relationships The model is consistent with my theory of learning because of the components. B following the components of the Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model, I already could feel how easy the learning process has been broken down. This is exactly what I believe learning is all about. It is about taking the â€Å"complex†stuff and simplifying it further into step by step basic components which can easily be digested by the learners whom you have already profiled. The model also allows for evaluation (Mayer, 1997). Whenever there is learning, the learnt information has to be examined for the instructor to know whether their way of instruction design helps or not. References Alessi, S., Trollip, S. (1991). Computer-based instruction. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.. Anglin, G. (Ed.). (1991). Instructional technology: Past, present and future. Englewood, Colorado: Libraries Unlimited. Chandler, P. Sweller, J. (1991). Cognitive Load Theory and the Format of Instruction.†Cognition and Instruction 8 (4): 293–332. Cooper, G., Sweller, J. (1987). Effects of schema acquisition and rule automation on mathematical problem-solving transfer.†Journal of Educational Psychology 79 (4): 347–362. Clark, R.C., Mayer, R.E. (2002). e-Learning and the Science of Instruction: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Clark, R. C., Nguyen, F., and Sweller, J. (2006). Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Gentry, C. (1994). Introduction to instructional development. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Co. Kemp, J., Morrison, G., Ross, S. (1996). Designing effective instruction. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Learner, R. (1986). Concepts and Theories of Human Development (2nd ed.). New York: Random House). Mayer, R.E. (1997). Multimedia Learning: Are We Asking the Right Questions?†EducationalPsychologist 32 (41): 1–19. Mayer, R.E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mayer, R.E., Bovet, W. Bryman, A. Mars, R. Tapangco, L. (1996).When Less Is More:Meaningful Learning From Visual and Verbal Summaries of Science Textbook Lessons. Journal of Educational Psychology. 88 (1): 64–73. Mayer, R.E., Steinhoff, K., Bower, G. and Mars, R. (1995). A generative theory of textbook design: Using annotated illustrations to foster meaningful learning of science text.†Educational Technology Research and Development. 43 (1): 31–41. Nadler, Leonard (1984). The Handbook of Human Resource Development. New York: John Wiley Sons. Newby, T., Stepich, D., Lehman, J., Russell, J. (1996). Instructional technology for teaching and learning. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.. Paas, F., Renkl, A. Sweller, J. (2004). Cognitive Load Theory: Instructional Implications of the Interaction between Information Structures and Cognitive Architecture. Instructional Science 32: 1–8. Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science 12 (1): 257–285. Sweller, J., Cooper, G. A. (1985). The use of worked examples as a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra. Cognition and Instruction 2 (1): 59–89. Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American educational technology. Stolovitch, H.D, Keeps, E. (1999). Handbook of human performance technology. Seels, B. Glasgow, Z. (1990). Exercises in instructional design. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Company. Seels, B. Glasgow, Z. (1998). Making instructional design decisions. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Company. Smith, P. Ragan, T. (1993). Instructional design. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice- Hall, Inc. Venezky, R. Osin, L. (1991). The intelligent design of computer-assisted instruction. New York: Longman. Furagin: Forced Degradation Studies Furagin: Forced Degradation Studies
Sunday, August 4, 2019
Self-Analysis Essay -- Essays Papers
Self-Analysis Before taking this course my writing styles and habits were very different. I was the typical procrastinator because I would wait until the night before a paper was due to start it. This did not allow me enough time to properly proofread everything, which resulted in getting points deducted for simple grammatical errors that could have been avoided if I would have had the time to proofread. My writing styles have many strengths and weaknesses and I have been able to improve my writing because of them. I have learned from my strengths and weaknesses how to become a better writer. In my writing, I have many strengths, some that which I have developed through this course and some that I already had. Before this class, I was able to pick out good content for my papers and concentrate on including the most important material. Also before this course I was able to develop paragraphs well. I was able to have good structure and format within my paragraphs. I was also able to think of the best order for them to go in so that the paper would flow well. However aft...
Saturday, August 3, 2019
Mans best friend Essay -- essays research papers fc
Man’s Best Friend      Who do you consider your best friend? Is it the person you grew up with? Is it your husband or wife? For many it is someone that is always they’re for them when sad or lonely, or when one needs to talk, cry, or laugh. However, thousands of Americans are turning to their dogs for a favorite companion. This paper will explore the enduring phrase â€Å"Man’s Best Friend†and the loyalty, faithfulness, intelligence, and companionship shared by dogs and masters that make this statement true.      Some might ask, why would anyone consider a dog their best friend? For many dog owners the answer would be loyalty. In a story from the Christian Science Monitor author William H. Carlile wrote, â€Å"There is a hero on West Eunice Street just outside the suburb of Tucson: a two-year-old female English Springer Spaniel named Brandy. She is credited by law-enforcement officials with attacking and chasing off an intruder last year at the home of her owners, Jerry and Kendal Plank, despite having been shot five times by a 9mm semiautomatic machine gun.†(11) This story is an excellent example of the loyalty a dog can acquire towards its masters, to be able to protect and even save lives. Loyalty is a very common trait given to dogs by their owners. Many of those who talk of the loyalty their dogs have for them will also have an incredible story to back up their beliefs. In an article in The Australian, an experienced hunter fell into a ravine and was unable to get out. He was there for five days before rescuers found him; they reported that temperatures fell below freezing at night and it rained three of the five night’s (007). His dog Bee, was able to get out of the ravine but decided to stay with his masters. Searcher Brent Keightley said, â€Å"If it wasn’t for the dog, Des wouldn’t have survived.†The article tells of how the dog slept with him to keep him warm during the freezing nights (007). This story not only demonstrates loyalty but also the faithfulness that a dog and master often share.      â€Å"Man’s Best Friend†is often considered a household phrase. Many people think of the loyalty of a dog when they here this saying, but for some it is also the loyalty of the owner and the friendship that builds between them. For an old baseball coach of mine it is not only a household s... ... seem to provide pure enjoyment and entertainment through their intelligence and friendliness. This statement, â€Å"Man’s Best Friend†, will continue to prove itself true for years to come, with new exciting and fun stories for everyone to enjoy. Works Cited Bankston, John. â€Å"Augusta, Ga., Bakery Caters to Man’s Best Friend.†     Augusta Chronicle 23 Nov. 2001 Carlile, William H. â€Å"’Man’s Best Friend’ is also Lifesaving Hero and Protector.†     Christian Science Monitor 23 Oct. 1997, Vol. 89 Issue 230, p11, 1c Hadnot, Ira J. â€Å"Man’s Best Friend Understands Us Better than We Think, Researcher      Suggests.†Dallas Morning News 8 Sep. 2000 Mosley, Ray. â€Å"For Our Best Friends, a New French Perfume That Smells Like Puppies.†     Chicago Tribune 22 Dec. 2000 N. A. â€Å"Courtroom ‘Eulogy for a Dog’ was Phrase’s Origin, Exhibit says With FEA-      Man’s Best Friend-Eulogy.†AP Worldstream 15 May. 2001 N.A. â€Å"This Man’s Best Friend Kept Him Alive for Five Days.†     Australian 15 Aug. 2001 ed.: 1. Section: World, pg. 007
Essay --
The Sweet Spot is Pretty Sweet Everyone knows that the sweet spot is the best place to hit a ball on a bat, but what really makes this the best place? The sweet spot is a very important spot on the bat, and without it, the ball will barely leave the infield. When someone hits the ball on the sweet spot, it feels very different from hitting the ball on the end of the bat or by the hands. Hitting the ball on the sweet spot makes it so the batter does not even feel the collision. There will be no vibrations, so therefore no stinging, when the batter hits the right area on the bat. Batters also have a hard time trying to extend through the ball when they do not hit the sweet spot. It is easy to extend and push the ball farther when the ball is hit on the sweet spot. Also, when the ball hits the sweet spot, all of the energy will go with the ball, making it go faster and farther. When the ball hits somewhere else on the bat, the bat will take a lot of the energy away from the ball making the ball not go as far. The swe et spot has more behind it than one would think, it differs in various types of bats, and it is the best place to hit the ball on a bat. There are many different definitions for the sweet spot of a bat. Most people who do not know much about the sweet spot would define it as the place on the bat where the ball goes the farthest when it is hit. They could also define it as the location that produces hardly any vibrational sensation, or sting, in the batter’s hands. But there are many more scientific definitions that the majority of people will not fully understand. It can be defined as the center of percussion, as well as the region between the nodes of the first two vibrational modes on the bat. Lastly, it is defined as ... ...uding the players themselves can have their own meaning of what the sweet spot is. Also, the sweet spot is located in almost the same place for both aluminum and wood bats, and there are not many differences between the two’s sweet spots. There are many elements in the bat when a ball hits the sweet spot, but the major one is the bending modes. These modes are extremely important for a bat, because they create the nodes that make up the sweet spot. Another important definition of the sweet spot is that it is the center of percussion. Then lastly, the sweet spot is the best place to hit the ball on the bat. There is no vibration or pain, and the hitter is pretty much guaranteed a good hit if they hit the sweet spot. The next time a batter gets a perfect hit, think about all of the things going on inside and outside of the bat when the ball hits the sweet spot.
Friday, August 2, 2019
Animal Cruelty in China Essay
Now our eyes are lashed by animal-abusing events nearby: Liu Haiyang, a Qinghua University student, hurt bears by sulphuric acid; tigers in circus troupe died of tiredness; thousands upon thousands of pet dogs in Guangzhou have them vocal cords cuthere are still countless such examples too tragic to look upon. The lesson we learn from that is not the transaction to individual event, but the need of some deep-going thinking: why does China have no related laws to ban and penalize similar commitment, when our society is increasingly developed; and why can our citizens turn blind in front of such atrocities when they are kept in a nation with profound Buddhism origin. Few people in China care about the feelings of animals or possess the concept of animal welfare. Some traditional factors play a positive role in this field. From childhood, anything about animals, most Chinese children get in touch with has undoubtedly put man above them. Even some of the children songs have described the nature of animals as malicious, such as slippery fox and ruthless wolf and so on, which not only casts a dark shadow over their hearts, but also leaves a wide gap between animals and children. These can all be taken in at a glance at the old saying: Man is the master of the universe. Disdain in spirit may lead to cruelty in action. As a result, man endows himself the natural rights to dominate the universe at the thought of human rights is gifted by the God, and take the life of animals as trifling matters. The civilized man always divides creatures into mankind and animals. The reason is no doubt that man thinks high of himself. Then is the deep-rooted human priority really true? Why should we insist on the inferiority of animals? Darwin has particularly compared the intellect of man and lower orders animals. He hold the opinion that we now know that the sensory organs, intuition, all kinds of emotions and functions, such as, love, memory, attention, curiosity, imitating and reasoning abilities, etc. Scientists have proved that animals possess sense perception as man does, which makes us have to ask ourselves a question: in the past 200 years, why did men keep extending the idea of ethics from state to nation, then to race, and finally to all individuals? Of course, morality has economic limitation. The reason because we found the former practice unfair. History shows that the category of ethical ideas is continuously expanding, and its extent keeps deepening. Man will finally break each kind of discovered unfairness, but we still exclude most perceptive species. Man could not communicate with animals in language, nor could they by other means. Therefore, man could not understand their agony and thereby took it as granted that animals could not sense pain. But now, man can measure whether an animal is suffering pain by some quantified standards. Experiments also proved the ability of animals to sense pain. If man still disregards their feelings in such a case, then it can by no means be considered a noble thing. A Chinese proverb says that never give anything to the others unless you like the thing. It may be changed into never give anything man dislike to them. Then how should we judge the suitable category of ethics at present level? I believe that the profit of each object involved in an action should all be considered. Therefore, we should extend the category of ethics to all species that are able to sense pain, joy and happiness. Why cannot man recognize animals in real life? The reason is that morality also has limitation of society. In reality there are usually conflicts between man and animal. Once man thinks an animal is harmful to him, he will show defense and hostility, considering not at all its welfare. Humans treat other humans still like this, let alone towards animals incapable of communicating in human languages. Therefore, powerful binding force is needed to seek welfare for animals. From the legal point of view, the inheritance of excellent Chinese traditional morality should be absorbed by newly discussed Chinese Animal Welfare Laws. Although it is easy to learn from abroad, it still needs persevering efforts of several years to really make the idea of animal welfare go deep into the hearts of most Chinese citizens. Since China has now been one of the members of World Trade Organization, the legal system and civilization level must catch up with the steps of economy linked to international developed countries. Thus, the development is wholesome, up-going and full-scale. It will be a great victory of global animal welfare cause to realize its popularization in China, a country that takes up one fifth of the world population. Up till now, most countries have enacted related laws and regulations. Many experience shows that in a society, the more advanced the economy, and the deeper the democratic idea goes into people heart, the much easier the concept of animal welfare is popularized and accepted by its citizens. Whether a person owns a kind heart can also be judged by his treatment toward animals. It is said that some criminologists point out that the maltreatment toward animals in childhood is a sign of the risk of committing crimes after grown up. Law is the minimal morality. The love and attention to animals should be from the bottom of hearts, instead of the regulation at legal levels. Maybe when human society reaches the stage of, in the word of Confucius, every life being equal, it is the time that animals finally be liberated. Universal love has no distinction between species. This is a world shared together by man and animals. China has started fairly late, but we may not escape or be absent in the trend of universal love. The future is bright but the way is zigzag. I would like to cite this Chinese proverb to describe the situation of Animal Welfare Law in China and I hope all the animals live happier life in the future, in China.
Thursday, August 1, 2019
Pilgrim Fathers
The pilgrim fathers where different to other colonists because when they arrived in America they did not explore the land. The pilgrim fathers stayed at the beach, set up camp and survived badly. The pilgrim fathers where extremely religious. They would not sing any song or do any dance because it distracted their memory when they talked to god. The pilgrim fathers where ordinary people with ordinary jobs such as a black smith or farmers. When the pilgrim fathers travelled to America they had a lot of problems. They travelled with about 20 people on a very small boat. This made many people sick. The boat was so cramped that 2 men died and a baby was born! On the journey they didn’t have any materials with them so they could not do anything to fix the boat. They struggled heavily. It took them 65 days to travel across the ocean and land in America. They arrived on January the 4th 1920. It was extremely cold where they stayed. When the pilgrim fathers met Squanto it was like meeting god for them. This is because Squanto was fluent at English and he knew how to survive. Squanto taught the pilgrim fathers how to fish herring, how to plant corn his way and how to survive the winter. The Indians respected the land and shared it with everyone. No one owned any piece of land. However, the English wanted to trade land and keep it for themselves. The Indians did not like this because they considered their land as a god. The native Americans (Indians), taught the English to eat pumpkin pie and corn. This was very strange for the English because it wasn’t part of their usual diet. This is remembered on the 25th of November in America. They call it ‘thanks giving’.
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